Amiga Explorer Serial Number

The Four Score for the original NES. The earliest multi-controller adapter was the Joypair by, released in for 's in, which allows two additional controllers to be plugged into the console's expansion port.

Cloanto Amiga Explorer v2010.0.1.0. Serialkey preview: Name: www.serials.be Seria. Added:; Downloaded: 0 times; Rating: 22%; Submitted by: anonymous; Full download: Cloanto_Amiga_Explorer_v2010.0.1.0.rar. Please input captcha to take your serial number. Cloanto Amiga Explorer v2010.0.1.0. Check the COM Port Number assigned to the USB/Serial adapter: COM Port. Check the Amiga Explorer connection properties are set to use the same port: Amiga Explorer. Right-click Amiga Explorer, select Setup and click OK: Setup. Click Yes to confirm Amiga OS 2.0 or higher (grey Workbench).

Originally the Joypair was only intended to allow two players to use specialized controllers (specifically HAL's controllers) in place of the standard Famicom joypads (which were hardwired into the console itself), but Nekketsu Kōkō Dodgeball Bu (the Japanese version of ) utilized it to allow up to four players to participate in the game's Bean Ball mode. Later released the Twin Adapter in 1989 as an alternative to the Joypair, while certain controllers (such as the ASCII Stick series and certain models of the Family Champ joysticks) came equipped with an additional expansion port that allowed for users to an additional controller into them. A more conventional 4-Players Adapter for the Famicom was eventually released by Hori in 1990, which allowed up to four controllers to be plugged into the expansion port (allowing each player to utilize a specialized joypad if they desired). During the same year, Nintendo released their own first-party adapters for the in North America: the NES Four Score and the NES Satellite. Despite the fact that the model of the Famicom uses the same controller ports as the NES, 4-player Famicom games are not compatible with the NES multitaps. Fourth generation [ ] The Multitap (the first device to be marketed with such a name) by NEC Home Electronics for the PC Engine, which launched alongside the platform in on October 30, 1987, was the first multi-controller adapter made specifically for multiplayer support, allowing up to five controllers to be plugged into the console.

Because the console itself only has one controller port as standard, the Multitap was a necessity for games that supported more than one player. As a result, various inexpensive alternatives to the Multitap were released for the PC Engine by third-party companies, such as the Battle Tap by Big Club and the Joy Tap 3 by, which featured less controller ports than the first-party Multitap, but these were gradually phased out as more games started to allow up to five players. The first PC Engine game to allow more than two players simultaneously was in August (ten months after the launch of the system), which allowed up to four players in a doubles match, while in was the first game to fully allow up to five players. The Multitap was redesigned into the TurboTap for the North American market with the launch of the in 1989, and later as the DuoTap for the in 1992 (the different models were due to the change in controller ports between the TurboGrafx-16 and the TurboDuo). An unlicensed multitap for the Super NES. Manufactured the Super Multitap, a multiplayer adapter for the in 1993. The adapter connects to the second controller port of the SNES control deck (leaving the first one free), resulting in a total of five controller ports (much like the original Multitap for the PC Engine).

It was produced primarily for, which had a prior installment on the PC Engine (simply titled ) that featured a five-player battle mode, although the SNES game only supported up to four players (the series did not support five players on the SNES until, which was released only in Japan and the PAL region). The Super Multitap has a switch for 2P Mode and 5P Mode, allowing it to remain connected into the console without affecting incompatible games. While no Nintendo-produced version of the peripheral was ever produced (nor were there any first-party games that supported it), various other SNES multitaps were later produced by other companies (both, licensed and unlicensed) such as the Hori Multitap (released by in North America as the Super Links) and the Multi-Adaptor Auto.

One particular unlicensed model, the Tribal Tap by Naki, added a fraudulent sixth controller port that was promoted as a selling point against competing multitap models, even though no licensedSNES game ever supported more than five players. Mde Unlocker 1.3 Serial. With two built-in controller ports Two independently developed multitaps were released for the also in 1993. The 4-Way Play (which utilized both controller ports) was developed by without license from and was made specifically for their lineup of (such as ), whereas the Team Player (known as the SegaTap in Japan) was developed by for and sold by Sega as a first-party product. In contrast to the 4-Way Play, the Team Player only required one controller port (leaving an additional port free for a fifth player, much like the Super Multitap) and also acted as a splitter that allowed users to switch between multiple input devices (such as a mouse or a light gun) connected to the console at the same time.

The original model of the Team Player (MK-1654) was incompatible with games that required the 4-Way Play, so a revision (MK-1647) was later produced that solved this issue by adding a second controller cord and an 'Extra' setting for 4-Way Play compatibility. While most Team Player-compatible titles only supported up to four players (with some games such as supporting up to five), Konami's Double Dribble: The Playoff Season and Sega's Egawa Suguru's Super League CD (a Japan-exclusive baseball game for Mega CD) both allow up to eight players with the use of two Team Player adapters (one in each controller port). In addition to these multitaps, released a series of Genesis cartridges known as the with two additional controller ports installed on them, allowing users to plug in additional controllers on them without the need of an adapter. A total of six games were released in J-Cart format. A few games released for the home computer system after included support for custom-built multitaps. Instructions for how to build a multitap were included in the manual to classic Amiga racing sequel. The Amiga multitap would plug into the computer's parallel port and provide two additional ports for use.

Earlier, the Amiga version of, had already included support for a similar device, as demonstrated on Season 2, Episode 5 of TV's. Fifth generation [ ]. An official multitap for the The original was one of the earliest peripherals released for the platform.

It featured not only four additional controller ports, but also four memory card slots for each of them as well. Like the Team Player adapter for the Genesis, two PlayStation Multitaps could be used at the same time for up to eight controllers and memory cards, although very few games allowed for more than five players.

A six-controller adapter was released for the (sold as the Multi-Player Adaptor in the United States and as the Multi Terminal 6 in Japan), which features the most controller ports out of all the multitaps made by first party manufacturers. The Saturn could theoretically support up to 12 controllers with the use of two adapters, but the only game to support this feature,, only allows up to ten players. One of the first multitaps for personal computers, the Gravis Interface Protocol (officially abbreviated GrIP) from, has six ports, four for digital Gravis-brand gamepads (e.g. The ), and two pass-through ports for analog joysticks.

Decline [ ] The did not have any official multitaps released for it, as the console featured four controller ports by default (the first console to do so since the ). As a result, many four-player games were released for the system. And the original would follow the N64's example by including four controller ports as default as well, as did Nintendo's succeeding console, the.

Despite this, the was released with only two controller ports like its predecessor, so a Multitap was still produced for the console. Because of compatibility issues, the original PS2 Multitap (SCPH-10090) for the early models of the console only worked specifically on PS2 games, meaning that the original PlayStation or PS one Multitap was still required for the games on the previous console. For the 'slimline' model of the PS2, a new Multitap (SCPH-70120) was made that supported both, PS and PS2 games. All three seventh generation consoles abandoned the use of conventional wired controller in favor of having wireless controllers as standard, although the maximum number of detected controllers varies with each platform. The console can detect up to four wireless controllers, as well as three wired controllers via USB connection. The, which uses a motion-sensitive remote controller known as the, can also detect up to four wireless controllers, but has four controller ports that are compatible with GameCube controllers.

The can support up to seven wireless controllers. For the eighth generation consoles, the maximum number of wireless controllers detected by the was reduced to four, while the ones detected by the was raised to eight.

The can support up to seven Wii Remotes or Wii U Pro Controllers in addition to the GamePad, for a total of eight wireless controllers. The Wii U does not feature GameCube controller ports by default, but a GameCube Controller Adapter was primarily made for that connects up to four GameCube controllers via the Wii U's USB port. Through the use of a USB hub and two adapters, up to eight GameCube controllers can be used. The supports up to 4 Pro Controllers or pairs of controllers, the latter capable of being split into two for a total of 8 per console.

Method of operation [ ] Many systems were not designed with multitaps in mind, and so require some clever design to work. Because of this, games usually have to be specially written to include multitap support.

The most common way of implementing 8 and 16 bit multitaps is to the signals from each attached controller in some way. Some systems have unused lines available on the controller port, designed for future expansion, which can be used.

Another popular technique is to serialise the data from each controller. Since the NES and Super NES both use a serial bus for standard controllers, creating a multitap is simply a case of increasing the amount of serial data available to the console. In that way, an almost unlimited number of extra controllers can be connected. Later systems used more complex buses, such as the, the.

These buses tend to be more modular and can already support more than one device per port, making the multitap little more than a hub. • Prior to Dodge Ball, the first Famicom game to allow more than two players simultaneously was Konami's released in 1986, which allows a third player to participate by simply plugging a joypad into the expansion port without the need of an adapter. The export version for the NES, titled Stinger, only allows up to two players. • This was a requirement for certain TurboGrafx-16 games released on the, as the first controller port on the Wii is needed for the fifth player in games such as Bomberman and Dungeon Explorer. References [ ].

Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green) An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of on one small flat piece (or 'chip') of, normally. The integration of large numbers of tiny into a small chip results in circuits that are orders of magnitude smaller, cheaper, and faster than those constructed of discrete. The IC's capability, reliability and building-block approach to has ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in virtually all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of.,, and other digital are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size and low cost of ICs. ICs were made possible by experimental discoveries showing that could perform the functions of, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more transistors on chips of the same size - a modern chip may have several billion in an area the size of a human fingernail.

These advances, roughly following, make a computer chip of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s. ICs have two main advantages over: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the IC's components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their small size and close proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required.

This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when are anticipated. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Terminology [ ] An integrated circuit is defined as: A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of construction and commerce. Generic Wifi Driver Download. Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including,,. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a monolithic integrated circuit. Invention [ ].

Main article: Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when German engineer () filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device showing five transistors on a common substrate in a 3-stage arrangement. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap as typical industrial applications of his patent.

An immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by (1909–2002), a radar scientist working for the of the British. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in on 7 May 1952. He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956.

A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's ). However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC. 's original integrated circuit Newly employed by, Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as 'a body of semiconductor material wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated.' The first customer for the new invention was the.

Kilby won the 2000 in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an in 2009. Half a year after Kilby, at developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilby's had not. Noyce's design was made of, whereas Kilby's chip was made of. Noyce credited of for the principle of, a key concept behind the IC. This isolation allows each transistor to operate independently despite being parts of the same piece of silicon. Was also home of the first silicon-gate IC technology with, the basis of all modern computer chips.

The technology was developed by Italian physicist in 1968. In 1970, he joined in order to develop the first single-chip (CPU), the, for which he received the in 2010. The 4004 was designed by 's and Intel's in 1969, but it was Faggin's improved design in 1970 that made it a reality. Advances [ ] Advances in IC technology, primarily smaller features and larger chips, have allowed the number of transistors in an integrated circuit to double every two years, a trend known as. This increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and increase functionality. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost every aspect of an IC's operation improves. The cost per transistor and the per transistor go down, while the memory capacity and go up, through the relationships defined.

Because speed, capacity, and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. Over the years, transistor sizes have decreased from 10s of in the early 1970s to 10 in 2017 with a corresponding million-fold increase in transistors per unit area. As of 2016, typical chip areas range from a few square to around 600 mm 2, with up to 25 million per mm 2. The expected shrinking of feature sizes, and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for many years by the (ITRS). The final ITRS was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems. Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of other technologies, in the attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost.

These technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors. •, and the closely related, are chips that are sensitive to light. They have largely replaced film in scientific, medical, and consumer applications.

Billions of these devices are now produced each year for applications such as cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won the Nobel prize in 2009. • Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a technology known as. These devices were developed in the late 1980s and are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Examples include,, and and used to deploy automobile. • Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality () into silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS based electronics.

Are also being developed. • Integrated circuits are also being developed for applications in or other devices. Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such biogenic environments to avoid or of the exposed semiconductor materials. As of 2016, the vast majority of all transistors are fabricated in a single layer on one side of a chip of silicon in a flat 2-dimensional. Researchers have produced prototypes of several promising alternatives, such as: • various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a, such as, 'monolithic 3D', stacked wire bonding, etc.

• transistors built from other materials:,,, transistor, transistor-like,, etc. • fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon. • modifications to the substrate, typically to make ' for a or other, possibly leading to a. Design [ ] The cost of and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the multiple tens of millions of dollars. This only makes economic sense if production volume is high, so the (NRE) costs are spread across typically millions of production units.

The from an Intel, an 8-bit that includes a running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of, 2048 bytes of, and in the same chip Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the or ' cores', which control everything from computers and cellular phones to digital. Digital and (ASICs) are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern. In the 1980s, were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as, and.

Current devices called (FPGAs) can (as of 2016) implement the equivalent of millions of gates in parallel and operate up to 1 GHz. Analog ICs, such as sensors,, and, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like,,, and.

Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch. ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as and. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference. Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or () chips created by and other companies.

Modern often further sub-categorize the huge variety of integrated circuits now available: • Digital ICs are further sub-categorized as logic ICs, chips, interface ICs (,, etc.),, and programmable devices. • Analog ICs are further sub-categorized as linear ICs and RF ICs. • are further sub-categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D converters, D/A converter, ) and clock/timing ICs. Manufacturing [ ] Fabrication [ ].

Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as built in the early 2000s. The graphic shows LDD-MISFET's on an SOI substrate with five metallization layers and solder bump for flip-chip bonding. It also shows the section for (front-end of line), (back-end of line) and first parts of back-end process. The of the of the were identified as the most likely materials for a.

Starting with, proceeding to, then, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, is the main used for ICs although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as are used for specialized applications like,, and the highest-speed integrated circuits.

It took decades to perfect methods of creating without defects in the of the semiconducting material. ICs are fabricated in a which includes three key process steps – imaging, deposition and etching. The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. (or for special applications, or gallium arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate.

Is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them. • Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers. • In a self-aligned process, a is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer.

•, in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the 'plates', with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs. • Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance. • More rarely, can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated.

Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between, CMOS devices consume much less current than devices. A is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light in the cannot be used to 'expose' a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus of higher frequencies (typically ) are used to create the patterns for each layer.

Because each feature is so small, are essential tools for a engineer who might be a fabrication process. Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) which are to pads, usually found around the edge of the die.. Was first introduced by A. Coucoulas which provided a reliable means of forming these vital electrical connections to the outside world.

After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Can also be used. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on low-yielding, larger, or higher-cost devices.

As of 2016, a (commonly known as a semiconductor fab) can cost over US$8 billion to construct. The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time () because much of the operation is automated. Today, the most advanced processes employ the following techniques: • The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate). • As of 2016, a state of the art foundry can produce 14 nm transistors, as implemented by,,, and. The next step, to 10 nm devices, is expected in 2017. • where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects. • dielectric insulators.

• in a process used by known as (SSDOI). • such as tri-gate transistors being manufactured by from 2011 in their 22 nm process. Packaging [ ]. A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in 1977, part of a four-chip calculator set designed in 1970 The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to (PGA) and (LCC) packages. Packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by the (SOIC) package – a carrier which occupies an area about 30–50% less than an equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner.

This package has 'gull wing' leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches. In the late 1990s, (PQFP) and (TSOP) packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end. Intel and AMD are currently [ ] transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to (LGA) packages. (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery.

Traces going out of the die, through the package, and into the have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a, or SiP. A, or MCM, is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often made of ceramic. The distinction between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. Chip labeling and manufacture date [ ] Most integrated circuits are large enough to include identifying information. Four common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was manufactured.

Extremely small parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturer's lookup table to find the chip characteristics. The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983. Intellectual property [ ]. Main article: The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout-designs. The established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce integrated circuits. A diplomatic conference was held at Washington, D.C., in 1989, which adopted a (IPIC Treaty). The Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits, also called Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty (signed at Washington on 26 May 1989) is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the agreement.

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, including Japan, the EC, the UK, Australia, and Korea. Other developments [ ] Future developments seem to follow the multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by Intel and AMD multi-core processors.

And IBM started shipping the in 2006, a 256-core microprocessor. Intel, as recently as February–August 2011, unveiled a prototype, 'not for commercial sale' chip that bears 80 cores. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others.

This is in response to to heat-versus-speed limit, that is about to be reached using (see: ). This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. Such as the open-source programming language are designed to assist with this task. Generations [ ] In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively simple.

Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. As the technology progressed, millions, then billions of transistors could be placed on one chip, and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to the field of, or EDA. Name Signification Year number number SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12 MSI medium-scale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99 LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 to 20,000 100 to 9,999 VLSI very large-scale integration 1980 20,000 to 1,000,000 10,000 to 99,999 ULSI ultra-large-scale integration 1984 1,000,000 and more 100,000 and more SSI, MSI and LSI [ ] The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors.

Early digital circuits containing tens of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the SL201 or the TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated circuit has increased dramatically since then. The term 'large scale integration' (LSI) was first used by scientist when describing the theoretical concept; [ ] that term gave rise to the terms 'small-scale integration' (SSI), 'medium-scale integration' (MSI), 'very-large-scale integration' (VLSI), and 'ultra-large-scale integration' (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were SSI. SSI circuits were crucial to early projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire development of the technology. Both the and needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the led and motivated integrated-circuit technology, it was the Minuteman missile that forced it into mass-production.

The Minuteman missile program and various other Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968, U.S. Government space and defense spending still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total production. The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate first the industrial and eventually the consumer markets. The average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968. Integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the decade, a typical application being inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.

The first chips were small-scale integration chips for satellites. The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called 'medium-scale integration' (MSI). In 1964, demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with an incredible (at the time) 120 transistors on a single chip. MSI devices were attractive economically because while they cost a little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.

Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to 'large-scale integration' (LSI) in the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip. The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as the microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using -tape or similar. For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by specially hired layout people under supervision of a team of engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness and completeness of each mask. However, modern VLSI devices contain so many transistors, layers, interconnections, and other features that it is no longer feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand. The engineer depends on computer programs and other hardware aids to do most of this work. Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000 transistors.

True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors. Some SSI and MSI chips, like, are still mass-produced, both to maintain old equipment and build new devices that require only a few gates. The of chips, for example, has become a and remains in production. Upper interconnect layers on an DX2 microprocessor die The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was 'very-large-scale integration' ().

The development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond ten billion transistors as of 2016. Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to smaller design rules and, so that they could make chips with more transistors and maintain adequate yield.

The path of process improvements was summarized by the (ITRS). Improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient replaced and, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. In 1986 the first one-megabit chips were introduced, containing more than one million transistors.

Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989 and the billion-transistor mark in 2005. The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.

ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC [ ] To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for 'ultra-large-scale integration' was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors. (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single 'super-chip'. Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers.

The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed. A (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see ). A (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits.

Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation. Silicon labelling and graffiti [ ] To allow identification during production most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling. ICs and IC families [ ] • The • The • logic building blocks •, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: ) •, the world's first, which led to the famous CPU and then the 's,, etc.

• The and microprocessors, used in many of the early 1980s • The series of computer-related chips, leading to the and series (used in some and in the 1980s Commodore series) • The of analog integrated circuits See also [ ].