Artistic Anatomy By Dr Paul Richer Pdf Editor

Gulabi Ankhein Raghav Sachar Mp3 Song Download. Contact Info For general lab inquiries please e-mail: Phone: 604.822.7220 Fax: 604.822.7232 E-mail: adele.diamond AT ubc.ca Address: Prof. Adele Diamond Canada Research Chair in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Department of Psychiatry University of British Columbia () 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Room G842 Vancouver, BC V6T 2A1 Canada Local Affliations Fellow, (2009- ) Recognized as #13 among the 30 most influential neuroscientists in the world today (2014) (2004- ) Head,, Dept. Of Psychiatry, UBC (2008- ) Founding Fellow, (2006-) Member,,, Faculty Fellow, (2007-2009) Founding Member, (2010- ) Brief Biosketch Adele Diamond is the Canada Research Chair Professor of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.

She is a member of the Royal Society of Canada and was recently recognized as one the 15 most influential neuroscientists alive today. Diamond is at the forefront of research on ‘executive functions’ and on the brain’s prefrontal cortex on which they depend. Executive functions include 'thinking outside the box' (cognitive flexibility), mentally relating ideas and facts (working memory), and giving considered responses rather than impulsive ones, resisting temptations and staying focused (inhibitory control, including selective attention). She has made discoveries that have improved treatment for two different medical disorders and discoveries that have impacted education, improving the lives of millions of children. Her work has shown that executive functions can be improved even in the very young. Adele Diamond was educated at Swarthmore (B.A., Phi Beta Kappa), Harvard (Ph.D.), and Yale Medical School (postdoc). Her many awards include an honorary doctorate ( Honoris Causa) from Ben-Gurion University, the Bronfenbrenner Award for Lifetime Contributions to Developmental Psychology in the Service of Science and Society, named a “Woman of Distinction” by the YWCA, and named one of the “2000 Outstanding Women of the 20th Century.” Research Interests Prof.

Diamond’s lab integrates developmental, cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular genetic methods to study prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the most complex cognitive abilities ('executive functions' [EFs]) that rely on PFC and interrelated brain regions. EFs include being able to 'think outside the box' and see things from other perspectives (cognitive flexibility), mentally relating different ideas and facts to one another (working memory), and giving a considered response rather than an impulsive one, resisting temptations, and staying focused (inhibitory control, including selective attention). These abilities are crucial for problem-solving, creativity, and reasoning, and for success in all life's aspects. One goal of the lab is to examine fundamental questions about how PFC and EFs are influenced by biological factors (such as genes and neurochemistry) and by environmental factors (including detrimental influences such as poverty or stress and facilitative ones such as interventions). For example, the lab examines ways in which unusual properties of the PFC dopamine system contribute to the exceptional sensitivity and vulnerability of PFC and EFs to environmental and genetic variations that have little effect elsewhere in the brain, and how at least some of these effects are different in men and women. One unusual aspect of the DA system in PFC is a relative dearth of DA transporter proteins, the best way for clearing away released DA.

This has many interesting and practical consequences. One of those relates to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We predict, and are testing, that physicians prescribing the correct dose of psychostimulants for controlling hyperactivity in patients with ADHD are prescribing too high a dose for patients’ cognitive problems. Physicians decide on the optimal psychostimulant dose for a child with ADHD by asking the child’s parent how the child is doing on different doses. The parent bases his/her answer on the child’s behavior. No one tests the child’s cognitive skills. Another goal of the lab is to find practical ways to help children develop healthy EFs, and thus to help more children thrive.

We offer a markedly different perspective from mainstream education in hypothesizing that focusing exclusively on training cognitive skills is less efficient, and ultimately less successful, than also addressing youths’ emotional, social, and physical needs. Our hypothesis is that besides training the skill(s) of interest, it’s important to support those skills by lessening things that impair them and enhancing things that support them.

Researchers and educators tend to focus on one aspect of a person in isolation. For example, efforts to study or to improve cognitive skills (such as EFs) or academic performance are generally done ignoring whether participants are happy or sad, lonely or healthy. Yet sadness, stress, loneliness, or poor health causes one’s EF performance to be worse and works against efforts to improve EFs or academic outcomes. Conversely, EFs are better when one feels emotionally and socially nourished and healthy. Social and/or emotional aspects of, or adjuncts to, a program to improve cognitive skills might be key to whether and/or how much that program succeeds.

We hope our research might fundamentally change the approach and underlying assumptions (i.e., shift the paradigm) of how to improve cognitive skills and how to educate children. We expect to show that focusing exclusively on training cognition might not be the best way to improve cognition; emotional and social factors might be key to whether cognition improves.

Traditional activities that have been part of all cultures throughout time (e.g., dance, music-making, play and sports) address all these aspects of a person -- they challenge our EFs (requiring focus, concentration, and working memory), make us happy and proud, provide a sense of belonging, and help our bodies develop. Recently we have turned our attention to the possible roles of music, dance, storytelling, traditional martial arts, positive sports, yoga, mindfulness, and even circus for improving executive functions, academic outcomes and mental and physical health. Significant Contributions 1. In the 1980s, Adele Diamond’s work opened up a new field of inquiry, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, which marked a milestone in the integration of developmental psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience.

Developmental psychologists and neuroscientists used to know little of one another’s work. As a graduate student, Diamond realized that for 50 years developmental psychologists and neuroscientists had been using essentially the same behavioral task without knowing it. Developmental psychologists called it “A-not-B” and used it to study cognitive development in infants; neuroscientists called it “delayed response” and used it to study the functions of prefrontal cortex (PFC) in monkeys. Building on that insight, she undertook a systematic program of research to chart the developmental progression of human infants on A-not-B and delayed response plus a transparent barrier task (to obtain converging evidence from a very different paradigm), the developmental progression of infant monkeys on the 3 tasks, the effect of lesions on adult monkeys' performance of those tasks, and the effect of lesions on infant monkeys' performance of the tasks (see Table below).

Artistic Anatomy By Dr Paul Richer Pdf Editor. Biocentrism Demystified: A Response to Deepak Chopra and Robert Lanza's Notion of a Conscious Universe. Co- authored with Ajita Kamal. Editor's Note: This article has been cited by P. Myers at Pharyngula and Steven Novella at Neurologica.“It is almost irresistible for. Artistic Anatomy By Dr Paul Richer Pdf Writer. Here's How Much Bubble Wrap You Need To Wrap A Giant Whale Heart. It's not every day one stumbles upon a 4. Thankfully, that's exactly what the folks at the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) did when they uncovered a dead blue whale in Newfoundland back in 2.

Behavioral Tasks.

This article is about the preserved person or animal. For the maternal parent, see. For other uses, see. A mummy is a deceased or an whose and have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to, extreme cold, very low, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions. Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally bodies goes back to at least 1615 AD (See the section ). Mummies of humans and other animals have been found on every continent, both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats.

Many of the Egyptian animal mummies are sacred ibis, and radiocarbon dating suggests that the Egyptian Ibis mummies that have been analyzed were from time frame that falls between approximately 450 and 250 BC. In addition to the well-known mummies of, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The of Fallon, Nevada in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BC. The oldest known naturally mummified human corpse is a dated as 6,000 years old, found in 1936 AD at the site named Inca Cueva No. 4 in South America. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Etymology and meaning [ ] The English word mummy is derived from medieval Latin mumia, a borrowing of the medieval Arabic word mūmiya (مومياء) and from a Persian word mūm (wax), which meant an embalmed corpse, and as well as the bituminous embalming substance, and also meant '.

The term 'mummy' was defined as 'medical preparation of the substance of mummies', rather than the entire corpse, with in 1599 AD complaining that 'these dead bodies are the Mummy which the Phisistians and Apothecaries doe against our willes make us to swallow'. These substances were defined as. The defines a mummy as 'the body of a human being or animal embalmed (according to the ancient Egyptian or some analogous method) as a preparation for burial', citing sources from 1615 AD onward.

However, and the Victorian zoologist define a mummy as follows: 'A human or animal body desiccated by exposure to sun or air. Also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow'.

Wasps of the genus are known as 'mummy wasps' because they wrap their caterpillar prey as 'mummies'. History of mummy studies [ ]. Utorrent Free Download For Windows 7 64 Bit Filehippo there. Tori Randall prepares a 550-year-old Peruvian child mummy for a CT scan at Naval Medical Center San Diego. While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as, most structured scientific study began at the beginning of the 20th century. Prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in novelties such as.

The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in, Egypt. The first of a mummy came in 1903, when professors and used the only X-ray machine in Cairo at the time to examine the mummified body of. British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of in 1922. Pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century.

In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in on in the. More than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. The information presented at the meeting triggered a new surge of interest in the subject, with one of the major results being integration of and information on mummies with existing databases.

This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique and highly specialized techniques required to gather such data. In more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally 'unwrap' mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in tiny areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in. Such modelling has been utilized to perform digital autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle, such as in the case of. Types [ ] Mummies are typically divided into one of two distinct categories: anthropogenic or spontaneous.

Anthropogenic mummies were deliberately created by the living for any number of reasons, the most common being for religious purposes. Spontaneous mummies, such as, were created unintentionally due to natural conditions such as extremely dry heat or cold, or conditions such as those found in. While most individual mummies exclusively belong to one category or the other, there are examples of both types being connected to a single culture, such as those from the ancient Egyptian culture and the Andean cultures of South America. Egyptian mummies [ ].

Main article: The earliest mummies were created naturally due to the environment in which they were buried. In the era prior to 3500 BC, Egyptians buried the dead in pit graves, without regard to. Pit graves were often shallow. This characteristic allowed for the hot, dry sand of the desert to the bodies, leading to natural mummification. The natural preservation of the dead had a profound effect on. Deliberate mummification became an integral part of the rituals for the dead beginning as early as the (about 2800 BC).

New research of an 11-year study by, and suggests mummification occurred 1,500 years earlier than first thought. Egyptians saw the preservation of the body after death as an important step to. As Egypt gained more prosperity, burial practices became a status symbol for the wealthy as well. This cultural hierarchy lead to the creation of elaborate, and more sophisticated methods of embalming. External video,, 2009 By the (about 2600 BC) Egyptian embalmers began to achieve 'true mummification' through a process of, followed by preserving the body in various minerals and oils.

Much of this early experimentation with mummification in Egypt is unknown. The few documents that directly describe the mummification process date to the.

The majority of the that have survived only describe the ceremonial rituals involved in embalming, not the actual surgical processes involved. A text known as does describe some of the practical logistics of embalming, however, there are only two known copies and each is incomplete. With regards to mummification shown in images, there are apparently also very few.

The tomb of Tjay designated, is one of only two known which show the wrapping of a mummy (Riggs 2014). Another text that describes the processes being used in latter periods is '.

Written in Book 2 of the Histories is one of the most detailed descriptions of the Egyptian mummification process, including the mention of using in order to dehydrate corpses for preservation. However, these descriptions are short and fairly vague, leaving scholars to infer the majority of the techniques that were used by studying mummies that have been unearthed. By utilizing current advancements in technology, scientists have been able to uncover a plethora of new information about the techniques used in mummification. A series of performed on a 2,400-year-old mummy in 2008 revealed a tool that was left inside the of the skull. The tool was a rod, made of an organic material, that was used to break apart the brain to allow it to drain out of the nose.

This discovery helped to dispel the claim within Herodotus' works that the rod had been a hook made of iron. Earlier experimentation in 1994 by researchers and Ronald Wade supported these findings. While attempting to replicate Egyptian mummification, Brier and Wade discovered that removal of the brain was much easier when the brain was liquefied and allowed to drain with the help of, as opposed to trying to pull the organ out piece-by-piece with a hook. Through various methods of study over many decades, modern now have an accurate understanding of how mummification was achieved in ancient Egypt.

The first and most important step was to halt the process of decomposition, by removing the internal organs and washing out the body with a mix of spices and palm wine. The only organ left behind was the heart, as tradition held the heart was the seat of thought and feeling and would therefore still be needed in the afterlife. After cleansing, the body was then dried out with natron inside the empty body cavity as well as outside on the skin. The internal organs were also dried and either sealed in individual jars, or wrapped to be replaced within the body. This process typically took forty days. This wooden mummy label was inscribed in black ink.

The original cord is still in situ. Roman Period.

From Hawara, Fayum, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London After dehydration, the mummy was wrapped in many layers of cloth. Within the layers, Egyptian priests placed small to guard the decedent from evil. Once the mummy was completely wrapped, it was coated in a resin in order to keep the threat of moist air away. Resin was also applied to the coffin in order to seal it. The mummy was then sealed within its tomb, alongside the worldly goods that were believed to help aid it in the afterlife.

Has been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed. Mummification and rank [ ] Mummification is one of the defining customs in for people today. The practice of preserving the human body is believed to be a quintessential feature of Egyptian life. Yet even mummification has a history of development and was accessible to different ranks of society in different ways during different periods. There were at least three different processes of mummification according to. They range from 'the most perfect' to the method employed by the 'poorer classes'.

'Most perfect' method [ ] The most expensive process was to preserve the body by dehydration and protect against pests, such as insects. Almost all of the actions Herodotus described serve one of these two functions. Main article: In Christian tradition, some bodies of are naturally conserved and venerated. Mummification in other cultures [ ] Africa [ ] In addition to the mummies of Egypt, there have been instances of mummies being discovered in other areas of the. The bodies show a mix of anthropogenic and spontaneous mummification, with some being thousands of years old.

Libya [ ] The mummified remains of an infant were discovered during an expedition by archaeologist to during the winter of 1958–1959 in the natural cave structure of. After curious deposits and cave paintings were discovered on the surfaces of the cave, expedition leaders decided to excavate. Uncovered alongside fragmented animal bone tools was the mummified body of an infant, wrapped in animal skin and wearing a necklace made of ostrich egg shell beads. Professor Tongiorgi of the University of Pisa radiocarbon-dated the infant to between 5,000–8,000 years old. A long incision located on the right abdominal wall, and the absence of internal organs, indicated that the body had been eviscerated, possibly in an effort to preserve the remains. A bundle of herbs found within the body cavity also supported this conclusion. Further research revealed that the child had been around 30 months old at the time of death, though gender could not be determined due to poor preservation of the sex organs.

South Africa [ ] The first mummy to be discovered in was found in the by Dr. Nicknamed Moses, the mummy was estimated to be around 2,000 years old. After being linked to the indigenous culture of the region, the National Council of Khoi Chiefs of South Africa began to make legal demands that the mummy be returned shortly after the body was moved to the Albany Museum in. Main article: As of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwestern.

Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known as. Testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BC. Later research on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine. It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners.

Since there is significant archaeological data that indicates the area was not actively inhabited during this time period, current consensus holds that the accident occurred during a brief period of temporary mining activity. Siberia [ ] In 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr. Discovered the, a -Siberian woman, on the in the near the Mongolian border. The mummy was naturally frozen due to the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe. Also known as Princess Ukok, the mummy was dressed in finely detailed clothing and wore an elaborate headdress and jewelry. Alongside her body were buried six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey. Her left arm and hand were tattooed with figures, including a highly stylized.

The Ice Maiden has been a source of some recent controversy. The mummy's skin has suffered some slight decay, and the tattoos have faded since the excavation. Some residents of the, formed after the breakup of the, have requested the return of the Ice Maiden, who is currently stored in in. Another Siberian mummy, a man, was discovered much earlier in 1929.

His skin was also marked with tattoos of two monsters resembling, which decorated his chest, and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm. Philippines [ ] Philippine mummies are called. They are common in culture and their heritage. The mummies are found in some areas named, and among others.

The mummies are dated between the 14th and 19th centuries. Europe [ ] The European continent is home to a diverse spectrum of spontaneous and anthropogenic mummies. Some of the best-preserved mummies have come from bogs located across the region. The Capuchin monks that inhabited the area left behind hundreds of intentionally-preserved bodies that have provided insight into the customs and cultures of people from various eras. One of the oldest, and most infamous, mummies (nicknamed ) was discovered on this continent. New mummies continue to be uncovered in Europe well into the 21st Century.

Bog bodies [ ]. Main article: The, the,, the,, and have produced a number of, mummies of people deposited in, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to the body's skin and soft tissues.

The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining contents. A famous case is that of the, who was discovered by labourers in a bog in in 1835.

She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal at the Saint Nicolai Church,, where she currently remains. Another famous bog body, also from Denmark, known as the was discovered in 1950.

The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. To this day, only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head. Canary Islands [ ]. Main article: The mummies of the belong to the people and date to the time before 14th Century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community.

The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians; involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping of the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration.

Czech Republic [ ]. A mummy from Guanajuato Intentional mummification in was practiced by the culture. These bodies are collectively known as. Genuine Aztec mummies were 'bundled' in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask. Public knowledge of Aztec mummies increased due to traveling exhibits and museums in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these bodies were typically naturally desiccated remains and not actually the mummies associated with Aztec culture. (See: ) Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico, though the most famous are the. A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at El Museo de las Momias in the city of since 1970.

The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummified ). It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate. Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town of,. United States [ ] was discovered in 1940 during salvage work prior to mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the 1990s dated the mummy to being nearly 9,000 years old. The remains are currently held at the.

There has been some controversy within the local Native American community, who began petitioning to have the remains returned and reburied in 1995. Horatio Gordon Robley with his mokomokai collection. Mummies from the are not limited only to. Discoveries of mummified remains have also been located in, and the, though these mummies have been historically harder to examine and classify. Prior to the 20th Century, most literature on mummification in the region was either silent or anecdotal. However, the boom of interest generated by the scientific study of Egyptian mummification lead to more concentrated study of mummies in other cultures, including those of Oceania.

Australia [ ] The aboriginal mummification traditions found in are thought be related to those found in the islands, the inhabitants of which achieved a high level of sophisticated mummification techniques (See:). Australian mummies lack some of the technical ability of the Torres Strait mummies, however much of the ritual aspects of the mummification process are similar. Full-body mummification was achieved by these cultures, but not the level of artistic preservation as found on smaller islands.

The reason for this seems to be for easier transport of bodies by more nomadic tribes. Torres Strait [ ] The mummies of the Torres Strait have a considerably higher level of preservation technique as well as creativity compared to those found on Australia. The process began with removal of viscera, after which the bodies were set in a seated position on a platform and either left to dry in the sun or smoked over a fire in order to aid in desiccation. In the case of smoking, some tribes would collect the fat that drained from the body to mix with ocher to create red paint that would then be smeared back on the skin of the mummy. The mummies remained on the platforms, decorated with the clothing and jewelry they wore in life, before being buried. New Zealand [ ]. Main article: Some tribes from New Zealand would keep mummified heads as trophies from tribal warfare.

They are also known as. In the 19th Century, many of the trophies were acquired by Europeans who found the tattooed skin to be a phenomenal curiosity. Westerners began to offer valuable commodities in exchange for the uniquely tattooed mummified heads. The heads were later put on display in museums, 16 of which being housed across France alone.

In 2010, the Rouen City Hall of France returned one of the heads to New Zealand, despite earlier protests by the Culture Ministry of France. There is also evidence that some Maori tribes may have practiced full-body mummification, though the practice is not thought to have been widespread. The discussion of Maori mummification has been historically controversial, with some experts in past decades claiming that such mummies have never existed.

Contemporary science does now acknowledge the existence of full-body mummification in the culture. There is still controversy, however, as to the nature of the mummification process.

Some bodies appear to be spontaneously created by the natural environment, while others exhibit signs of deliberate practices. General modern consensus tends to agree that there could be a mixture of both types of mummification, similar to that of the ancient Egyptian mummies. South America [ ] The continent contains some of the oldest mummies in the world, both deliberate and accidental. The bodies were preserved by the best agent for mummification: the environment.

The Pacific coastal desert in and is one of the driest areas in the world and the dryness facilitated mummification. Rather than developing elaborate processes such as later-dynasty ancient Egyptians, the early South Americans often left their dead in naturally dry or frozen areas, though some did perform surgical preparation when mummification was intentional. Some of the reasons for intentional mummification in South America include memorialization, immortalization, and religious offerings. A large number of mummified bodies have been found in pre-Columbian cemeteries scattered around Peru.

The bodies had often been wrapped for burial in finely-woven textiles. Chinchorro mummies [ ]. Main article: The are the oldest intentionally prepared mummified bodies ever found. Beginning in and continuing for an estimated 3,500 years, all human burials within the Chinchorro culture were prepared for mummification. The bodies were carefully prepared, beginning with removal of the internal organs and skin, before being left in the hot, dry climate of the, which aided in desiccation.

A large number of Chinchorro mummies were also prepared by skilled artisans to be preserved in a more artistic fashion, though the purpose of this practice is widely debated. Inca mummies [ ]. Several naturally-preserved, unintentional mummies dating from the period (1438–1532 AD) have been found in the colder regions of,, and. These are collectively known as 'ice mummies'. The first Incan ice mummy was discovered in 1954 atop in Chile, after an eruption of the nearby volcano melted away ice that covered the body.

The was a male child who was presumed to be wealthy due to his well-fed bodily characteristics. He was considered to be the most well-preserved ice mummy in the world until the discovery of Mummy Juanita in 1995. Was discovered near the summit of in the Peruvian section of the mountains by archaeologist. Her body had been so thoroughly frozen that it had not been desiccated; much of her skin, muscle tissue, and internal organs retained their original structure.

She is believed to be a ritual sacrifice, due to the close proximity of her body to the Incan capital of, as well as the fact she was wearing highly intricate clothing to indicate her special social status. Several Incan ceremonial artifacts and temporary shelters uncovered in the surrounding area seem to support this theory. More evidence that the Inca left sacrificial victims to die in the elements, and later be unintentionally preserved, came in 1999 with the discovery of the on the border of Argentina and Peru. The three mummies are children, two girls and one boy, who are thought to be sacrifices associated with the ancient ritual of. Recent of the mummies has revealed that the victims had consumed increasing quantities of and, possibly in the form of, in the months leading up to sacrifice. The dominant theory for the drugging reasons that, alongside ritual uses, the substances probably made the children more docile.

Chewed coca leaves found inside the eldest child's mouth upon her discovery in 1999 supports this theory. Inca emperors. The bodies of Inca emperors and wives were mummified after death. In 1533, the of the Inca Empire viewed the mummies in the Inca capital of Cuzco. The mummies were displayed, often in lifelike positions, in the palaces of the deceased emperors and had a retinue of servants to care for them.

The Spanish were impressed with the quality of the mummification which involved removal of the organs, embalming, and freeze-drying. The population revered the mummmies of the Inca emperors. This reverence seemed idolatry to the Spanish and in 1550 they confiscated the mummies. The mummies were taken to where they were displayed in the San Andres Hospital. The mummies deteriorated in the humid climate of Lima and eventually they were either buried or destroyed by the Spanish. An attempt to find the mummies of the Inca emperors beneath the San Andres hospital in 2001 was unsuccessful. The archaeologists found a crypt, but it was empty.

Possibly the mummies had been removed when the building was repaired after an earthquake. Self-mummification [ ].

Main articles: and Monks whose bodies remain without any traces of deliberate mummification are venerated by some Buddhists who believe they successfully were able to mortify their flesh to death. Self-mummification was practiced until the late 1800s in Japan and has been outlawed since the early 1900s. Many Mahayana Buddhist monks were reported to know their time of death and left their last testaments and their students accordingly buried them sitting in, put into a vessel with drying agents (such as wood, paper, or ) and surrounded by bricks, to be exhumed later, usually after three years. The preserved bodies would then be decorated with paint and adorned with gold. Bodies purported to be those of self-mummified monks are exhibited in several Japanese shrines, and it has been claimed that the monks, prior to their death, stuck to a sparse diet made up of salt,,,, bark, and tea. Modern mummies [ ].

Jeremy Bentham wished to be mummified after he died. Jeremy Bentham [ ] In the 1830s,, the founder of, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy. He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the 'horror at dissection originates in ignorance'; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, which despite being mis-preserved, was displayed beneath his feet until theft required it to be stored elsewhere), which were to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and 'seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought'. His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing it as Bentham requested, is on open display in the. Vladimir Lenin [ ] During the early 20th century, the Russian movement of, as represented by, envisioned scientific resurrection of dead people.

The idea was so popular that, after 's death, and suggested to his body and brain in order to revive him in the future. Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized. Instead his body was and placed on permanent exhibition in the in Moscow, where it is displayed to this day.

The mausoleum itself was modeled by on the and the. Gottfried Knoche [ ] In late 19th-century Venezuela, a German-born doctor named conducted experiments in mummification at his laboratory in the forest near. He developed an (based on an compound) that mummified corpses without having to remove the internal organs.

The formula for his fluid was never revealed and has not been discovered. Most of the several dozen mummies created with the fluid (including himself and his immediate family) have been lost or were severely damaged by vandals and looters. Summum [ ] In 1975, an organization by the name of introduced 'Modern Mummification', a service that utilizes modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods of mummification. The first person to formally undergo Summum's process of modern mummification was the founder of Summum,, who died in January 2008.

Summum is currently considered to be the only 'commercial mummification business' in the world. Alan Billis [ ] In 2010, a team led by forensic archaeologist Stephen Buckley mummified Alan Billis using techniques based on 19 years of research of 18th-dynasty Egyptian mummification. The process was filmed for television, for the documentary Mummifying Alan: Egypt's Last Secret. Billis made the decision to allow his body to be mummified after being diagnosed with terminal cancer in 2009.

His body currently resides at London's Gordon Museum. Plastination [ ]. Main article: is a technique used in to conserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat are replaced by certain plastics, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most microscopic properties of the original sample. The technique was invented by when working at the anatomical institute of the in 1978. Von Hagens has patented the technique in several countries and is heavily involved in its promotion, especially as the creator and director of the traveling exhibitions, exhibiting plastinated human bodies internationally. He also founded and directs the Institute for Plastination in.

More than 40 institutions worldwide have facilities for plastination, mainly for medical research and study, and most affiliated to the International Society for Plastination. Treatment of ancient mummies in modern times [ ] In the, based on a mistranslation from the term for bitumen, it was thought that mummies possessed healing properties. As a result, it became common practice to grind Egyptian mummies into a powder to be sold and used as medicine. When actual mummies became unavailable, the corpses of criminals, slaves and people were substituted by mendacious merchants. The practice developed into a wide-scale business that flourished until the late 16th century. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties to stop bleeding, and were sold as in powdered form as in. Artists also made use of Egyptian mummies; a brownish pigment known as, based on (sometimes called alternatively, Latin for death's head), which was originally obtained by grinding human and animal Egyptian mummies.

It was most popular in the 17th century, but was discontinued in the early 19th century when its composition became generally known to artists who replaced the said pigment by a totally different blend -but keeping the original name, mummia or mummy brown-yielding a similar tint and based on ground minerals (oxides and fired earths) and or blends of powdered gums and oleoresins (such as myrrh and frankincense) as well as ground bitumen. These blends appeared on the market as forgeries of powdered mummy pigment but were ultimately considered as acceptable replacements, once antique mummies were no longer permitted to be destroyed. Many thousands of mummified cats were also sent from Egypt to England to be processed for use in. During the 19th century, following the discovery of the first tombs and artifacts in Egypt, Egyptology was a huge fad in Europe, especially in. European aristocrats would occasionally entertain themselves by purchasing mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions.

These sessions destroyed hundreds of mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate. The use of mummies as for was documented by (likely as a joke or humor), but the truth of the story remains debatable. During the, mummy-wrapping linens were said to have been used to manufacture paper. Evidence for the reality of these claims is still equivocal. In popular culture [ ].